Sir Walter Raleigh and the Roanoke Colony

Sir Walter Raleigh was one of the leading supporters of the English Voyages of Discovery during the reign of Elizabeth I. He hoped to establish English settlements in North America, opening the way for trade, further exploration and competition with Spain. His attempts to establish a colony at Roanoke failed, and when a relief expedition returned in 1590, the settlers could not be found. Their fate remains uncertain.

Raleigh’s plans were part of the wider Elizabethan Era, when English sailors and merchants sought new routes, overseas wealth and opportunities to challenge Spanish power. The Roanoke expeditions were important early attempts to establish an English presence in the New World.

Sir Walter Raleigh, English explorer and founder of the Roanoke colony, in a portrait dated 1588. — Sir Walter Raleigh, painted in 1588. Raleigh promoted English voyages of discovery and attempts to establish a colony in North America at Roanoke.

Sir Walter Raleigh and the Virginia Colony

Raleigh rose to prominence at Elizabeth I’s court through royal favour, his service in Ireland and his support for overseas expansion. In 1584, Elizabeth granted him a charter allowing him to organise expeditions and establish colonies in North America. The charter permitted English settlement in lands that were not already held by a Christian ruler, according to the terms used by the English Crown. This reflected the assumptions behind European claims to overseas territory, even though the Americas were already inhabited by Indigenous peoples.

Raleigh hoped that colonies would provide valuable goods, create opportunities for trade and give England a base from which to challenge Spanish interests. Privateers could also use suitable coastal settlements to attack Spanish shipping. This appealed to a government facing financial pressures and competing with Spain for influence. Overseas expansion therefore connected exploration with the wider concerns of Elizabethan government and society.

The area Raleigh intended to colonise was named Virginia in honour of Elizabeth, who was known as the Virgin Queen. Raleigh did not personally lead the expeditions to establish the colony. Instead, he organised and financed ventures through other commanders and settlers. For more about his career, see the biography of Sir Walter Raleigh.

Searching for El Dorado

Raleigh was also attracted by stories of El Dorado, a legendary place associated with great wealth and gold in South America. In 1595, he led an expedition into the Guiana region and travelled along the Orinoco River in search of evidence of this wealthy kingdom. He did not find the riches he sought.

Raleigh returned to Guiana in 1617, during the reign of James I. This later expedition was separate from his attempts to establish a colony at Roanoke. It also shows that his interest in overseas exploration continued long after Elizabeth’s death.

The first Roanoke expedition, 1584

In April 1584, two ships commanded by Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe sailed from England to explore the coast of North America and identify a suitable site for a settlement. They reached the region in the summer and visited Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina.

The English expedition made contact with Indigenous people, including members of the Secotan and Croatoan communities. These communities already had their own settlements, economies and political relationships. The English relied on information and assistance from local people as they assessed the region.

Barlowe returned to England with reports of the area’s resources and potential. Two Indigenous men, Manteo and Wanchese, also travelled to England. Their experiences and accounts helped shape English expectations about the proposed colony, although the English and Indigenous communities did not necessarily share the same aims.

The first settlement, 1585–1586

In 1585, Raleigh sent a larger expedition to establish a settlement on Roanoke Island. About 100 men remained under the leadership of Ralph Lane. They built a fort and attempted to make the settlement self-sufficient while awaiting further supplies from England.

The colony soon encountered serious problems. Supplies were limited, relations with neighbouring Indigenous communities deteriorated, and the settlers struggled to obtain enough food. Their plans depended heavily on support from England, but maintaining a settlement across the Atlantic was difficult and expensive.

In 1586, Sir Francis Drake arrived in the region after his own operations in the Caribbean. He offered the settlers passage back to England. Many accepted, and the first settlement was abandoned. Some of the returning colonists brought plants and other unfamiliar goods back to England, including tobacco and potatoes.

The failure of the first settlement demonstrated how difficult it was to establish a colony far from England. Raleigh nevertheless continued to pursue his plans.

The second Roanoke colony, 1587

Raleigh organised another expedition in 1587, this time including families as well as individual settlers. About 115 colonists sailed under the leadership of John White, who was appointed governor. The expedition was intended to establish a more lasting community in Virginia.

When the settlers reached Roanoke, they found that the earlier settlement had been abandoned. They began rebuilding and establishing themselves on the island. Relations with Indigenous communities remained an important issue, and the colonists faced uncertainty about food supplies and their security.

Two events became especially significant. Manteo, who had assisted the English, was baptised into the Church of England. On 18 August 1587, John White’s granddaughter, Virginia Dare, was born. She became famous as the first English child born in the Roanoke colony.

White soon returned to England to obtain supplies. He expected to return relatively quickly, but events in Europe made this impossible. The threat from Spain and the preparations for the Spanish Armada disrupted shipping and diverted resources towards the defence of England.

The Lost Colony: what happened at Roanoke?

John White was unable to return to Roanoke until 1590. When he arrived, he found that the settlers were gone. The site had been abandoned, and the colonists’ fate was unknown.

White and his companions found the word CROATOAN carved into a post. The letters CRO had also been carved into a tree. The colonists had reportedly agreed to leave a sign indicating their intended destination if they had to move. A cross was supposed to indicate that they had left because of danger, but White did not find one.

White believed that the settlers might have moved to Croatoan, an island associated with the Croatoan people. However, poor weather and difficult conditions prevented him from completing the search. He returned to England without finding the colonists.

The colony’s disappearance became known as the Lost Colony of Roanoke. The surviving evidence does not establish exactly what happened. The settlers may have moved to another location, joined neighbouring communities, suffered from shortages or disease, or experienced violence. More than one factor may have contributed to the colony’s failure.

The mystery should not be treated as proof that the colonists simply vanished without explanation. The carved message suggests that at least some settlers may have intended to move, but there is no conclusive evidence establishing their ultimate fate.

Why did the Roanoke colony fail?

Several problems made the colony vulnerable:

Dependence on supplies: the settlers relied on regular shipments from England, which could be delayed by war, weather and other dangers.
Food shortages: the colonists struggled to secure enough food and could not easily replace supplies from across the Atlantic.
Relations with Indigenous communities: relationships varied between communities and changed over time. Conflict and mistrust made the English position more difficult.
Distance from England: the long sea journey made it difficult to send help quickly or discover what had happened.
War with Spain: the Armada crisis disrupted the supply mission and diverted English resources.

The experience at Roanoke showed that claiming territory was not the same as establishing a successful colony. A settlement needed reliable supplies, local knowledge, workable relationships with Indigenous communities and continued support from England.

What was the significance of Roanoke?

The Roanoke expeditions did not establish a lasting English settlement, but they influenced later attempts to colonise North America. Raleigh’s plans helped keep English interest in the region alive, while the experiences of the settlers revealed the practical difficulties of overseas colonisation.

In 1607, English settlers established Jamestown in Virginia. It became the first permanent English settlement in what later became the United States. Unlike Roanoke, Jamestown survived, although its early years were marked by severe hardship and conflict with Indigenous peoples.

The history of Roanoke also needs to be understood in the context of European expansion. English settlement threatened Indigenous control of land and resources, while European colonisation brought conflict, disease and major changes to local communities. These consequences continued as English settlements expanded in the following centuries.

Raleigh’s attempts to establish Virginia therefore formed part of the wider story of English exploration, colonisation and the growing rivalry with Spain. The expeditions reveal both the ambitions of Elizabethan explorers and the challenges of turning exploration into permanent settlement.

Sir Walter Raleigh, Roanoke and the Virginia Colony