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Mary, Queen of Scots

Mary, Queen of Scots was one of the most serious political and dynastic threats faced by Elizabeth I. Mary and Elizabeth were second cousins, both descended from Henry VII, and Mary’s claim to the English throne was stronger than that of many other Catholic claimants. She was also a Roman Catholic and, for a brief period, Queen Consort of France. Her claim to the English succession became particularly dangerous because religious conflict in Scotland and Europe created opportunities for opponents of Elizabeth.

Portrait of Mary Queen of Scots
Mary, Queen of Scots. Portrait dated to 1560 -1592. Derived from NPG 1766

Why was Mary, Queen of Scots a threat to Elizabeth?

Mary had a claim to the English throne through her grandmother, Margaret Tudor, the elder sister of Henry VIII. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII, so both queens were descendants of Henry VII.

Mary’s claim became particularly controversial after Elizabeth’s accession in 1558. Mary and her husband, Francis, were closely connected to the French royal family, and Mary had been brought up in France as a Catholic. Mary and Francis used the English royal arms, reflecting Mary’s claim that Elizabeth was not the rightful queen.

The issue was made more dangerous by religion. Elizabeth established a Protestant religious settlement in England, while Mary remained a Roman Catholic. For English Catholics and foreign Catholic powers, Mary could therefore represent an alternative to Elizabeth.

Mary’s Early Life

Mary Stuart was born in December 1542. Her father, James V of Scotland, died only days after her birth, making Mary Queen of Scotland as an infant. Her mother, Mary of Guise, governed Scotland as regent during her daughter’s childhood.

Mary’s childhood was shaped by the rivalry between England, Scotland and France. Henry VIII attempted to arrange a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward, in the hope of bringing Scotland into closer political alignment with England. When the Scottish government rejected the proposal, Henry VIII launched military campaigns against Scotland known as the Rough Wooing.

Mary was eventually betrothed to the French Dauphin, Francis, and was sent to France. She married Francis in 1558. When he became King Francis II in 1559, Mary became Queen Consort of France as well as Queen of Scotland.

England, Scotland and France, 1558–1560

When Elizabeth became queen in November 1558, relations between England and Scotland were closely connected to wider European religious and political conflicts. Scotland was experiencing growing opposition to the Catholic government of Mary of Guise, while Protestant reformers were becoming increasingly influential.

The Scottish Reformation developed rapidly during 1559. John Knox returned to Scotland and Protestant opposition to the regency grew. The Lords of the Congregation challenged the authority of Mary of Guise and opposed the presence of French troops in Scotland.

Elizabeth’s government became increasingly concerned that French intervention in Scotland could threaten England’s security. In early 1560, England provided military assistance to the Scottish Protestant forces. English and Scottish forces subsequently besieged the French garrison at Leith.

The conflict ended with the Treaty of Edinburgh in July 1560. French forces withdrew from Scotland and the immediate danger of a permanent French military presence on England’s northern border was reduced. Mary and Francis, however, continued to claim the English royal arms.

Mary Returns to Scotland

Mary’s position changed dramatically after the death of Francis II in December 1560. She was no longer Queen Consort of France and returned to Scotland in August 1561.

Scotland had changed during her absence. The Scottish Parliament had established a Protestant settlement, while Mary remained a Catholic. She was allowed to practise her religion, but her position was politically difficult because Scotland was now predominantly Protestant.

Mary initially attempted to govern without overturning the Protestant settlement. However, her religious identity and her claim to the English succession continued to make her an important figure in international politics.

Mary, Darnley and the Scottish Crisis

Mary’s second marriage created further political problems. In 1565 she married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was also descended from Henry VII and therefore had a claim to the English succession.

The marriage strengthened the potential dynastic challenge to Elizabeth but quickly became unstable. In March 1566, Darnley and a group of supporters murdered Mary’s secretary, David Rizzio, at Holyrood Palace.

Darnley himself was murdered in February 1567. Mary subsequently married James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, one of the men accused of involvement in Darnley’s death. The marriage caused a political crisis. Mary was forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son, James, and Bothwell fled.

Mary in England

In May 1568, Mary escaped from captivity in Scotland and crossed the Solway Firth into England. She expected Elizabeth to help restore her to the Scottish throne.

Instead, Elizabeth faced a difficult political problem. Mary was a Catholic queen with a claim to the English throne who was now physically present in England. Elizabeth could not easily restore her without strengthening a potential rival, but she was also reluctant to allow Mary to leave England and become the focus of foreign or Catholic intervention.

Mary was therefore kept under guard in England for almost nineteen years. She remained a potential focus for opposition to Elizabeth and became increasingly associated with Catholic plots against the English government.

Plots and the Threat to Elizabeth

Mary’s presence in England became particularly dangerous when Catholic conspiracies developed around her. The Northern Rising of 1569 was followed by further plots involving Catholics who hoped to replace Elizabeth with Mary. These events formed part of the wider plots and rebellions of the Elizabethan age.

Mary’s precise involvement in individual conspiracies remains a matter of historical debate. However, her position as a Catholic claimant meant that conspirators could use her name and claim as a possible alternative to Elizabeth.

The most serious conspiracy was the Babington Plot of 1586. Mary’s correspondence with the conspirators was intercepted, and she was subsequently tried for treason.

Recent research into Mary’s surviving correspondence has also revealed previously unknown letters from the years before her execution, demonstrating the importance of secret communication networks and the continuing political activity surrounding Mary while she was held in England.

Mary was found guilty and sentenced to death. Elizabeth hesitated over authorising the execution because executing an anointed monarch was politically and diplomatically dangerous. Mary was eventually executed at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587.

Why was Mary, Queen of Scots important?

Mary represented a threat to Elizabeth for several connected reasons:

  • Dynastic: Mary had a claim to the English throne through Margaret Tudor.
  • Religious: Mary was a Catholic while Elizabeth established a Protestant Church of England.
  • Political: Catholic opponents of Elizabeth could use Mary as an alternative claimant.
  • International: Mary’s connections with France, Scotland and other Catholic powers increased the possibility of foreign intervention.
  • Security: Mary’s presence in England created a continuing focus for plots and rebellion.

Mary’s importance therefore extended beyond her personal rivalry with Elizabeth. Her claim to the English throne connected the succession question, religious conflict and international politics. These issues were central to the challenges faced by Elizabeth’s government throughout her reign.

Mary’s story is closely connected to the wider Elizabethan era, particularly the challenges to the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, the plots and rebellions of the Elizabethan age, and the wider international conflicts of Elizabeth’s reign.

Further Reading