A Paper Crown

On 25th October 1460, Royal Assent was granted to the Act of Accord. The Act handed the succession to the crown of England to Richard, 3rd Duke of York and his line. Year’s of tension relating to the crown and other issues had seemingly been resolved. Yet ten weeks later the head of Richard adorned a spike overlooking the City of York, wearing a mocking Paper Crown. How in such a short space of time did York’s demands being pacified and assented to by the crown turn to his head being displayed as that of a traitor?

1460: The Road to War

Though there been an armed conflict between supporters of the Crown and those York at St. Alban’s in 1455, there was no inevitability that a wider conflict would emerge. Attempts had been to bring the opposing parties closer, such as the Loveday held in 1458. The duke of York had, for two years, acted as Protector during the incapacity of King Henry VI. Much had been done to improve the efficiency of the royal household, court administration and council had for large parts of the period been quite non-partisan in nature. So how and why did things fall apart so quickly?

 

Henry VI’s Parliament of 1460

The following extract is taken from the parliamentary rolls from the October 1460 sittings. It refers earlier parliaments and provides clues as to the political mood of the day:

To the kyng oure soverayne lord prayen the commens in this present parlement assembled that where dyvers sedicious and evill disposed persones, noo regard havyng to the drede of God, ne to the hurt of the prosperous estate of youre moost noble persone, ne of this youre realme, synesterly and ymportunely laboured youre highnes to somon and calle a parlement to be holden at youre citee of Coventre, the .xx. day of Novembre, the yere of youre noble reigne .xxxviij. ti , oonly to thentent to distroy certayne of the grete, noble and faithfull true lordes and estates of youre blode, and other of youre true liege people of this youre realme, for the grete rancour, hate and malice, that the seid sedicious persones of long tyme had ayenst theym, and of their insaciable covetyse to have the landes, enheritaunces, possessions, offices and goodes of the seid lordis, and true lieges; by which labour, certain actes, statutes and ordenauncez, ayenst all good feith and conscience, were made in the seid last parlement, to destroy fynally youre seid true lordes, states and liege people, and their issuez, aswell innocents as other, and their heires perpetuelly; which parlement was unduely sommoned, and a grete parte of the knyghts for dyvers shyres of this youre realme, and many citezeins and burgeys for dyvers citees and burghes apperyng in the same, were named, retourned and accepted, som of theym without dieu and free election, and som of theym withoute any election, ayenst the cours of youre lawes and the libertees of the commens of this youre realme, by the mean and labour of the seid sedicious persones; wheruppon hath ensued many grete jeoperdies and inconveniences, full nere to [col. b]the ruyne and universall subversion of this youre seid realme. Please it youre highnes to considre the premisses and that the seid lordes, states and other youre lieges, ayenst whome the seid acts, statutis and ordenaunces were made, have ever had grete and feithfull love to the preferryng and suertee of the welfare of youre moost roiall persoon, accordyng to their duetee; and that there were fewe acts or ordynaunce in the seid last parlement holden at Coventre, made for the wele of you, ne of youre seid realme, but the more parte of the actis, statutes and ordynauncez made in the same were laboured by the conspiryng, procuryng and excitacion of the seid evill disposed persones for […] the introduction and accomplisshement of their rancour, and inordinate covetyse; to ordeyne, enacte and establissh, by thavis and assent of the lordes spirituell and temporell in this present parlement assembled, and by auctorite of the same, that the said parlement holden at youre seid citee of Coventre be voide and taken for noo parlement; and that all acts, statutis and ordenaunces, by the auctorite of the same made, be reversed, adnulled, cassed, irrite, repeled, revoked, voide and of noo force ne effect.

Parliament Roll entry revoking the Coventry Parliament’s attainders.

‘Henry VI: October 1460’, in Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, ed. Chris Given-Wilson, Paul Brand, Seymour Phillips, Mark Ormrod, Geoffrey Martin, Anne Curry and Rosemary Horrox (Woodbridge, 2005), British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/parliament-rolls-medieval/october-1460 [accessed 6 June 2019].

Questions about the October 1460 Parliament

1. What term is often given to the Coventry parliament that is mentioned in this extract?
2. What had happened at the Coventry parliament?
3. Who had not attended the parliament and why did they fail to do so?
4. What had happened in the period between the Coventry parliament and the parliament of October 1460?
5. Who held power at Coventry? Who held power at the October 1460 parliament?
6.  Were actions of the Coventry parliament overturned as in this extract? What specific things we’re overturned?

The Coventry parliament is better as being the Parliament of Devils. At this session of parliament, charges were made against the leading Yorkists, resulting in them being attained.

The moost diabolique unkyndnesse and wrecched envye in theym, and moost unresonable appetite of such estate as of reason ought not to be desired nor had by noon of theym

Charge laid against the Yorkists at the ‘Parliament of Devils’ in Coventry

From Coventry to the Act of Accord

Aware of the intentions of Margaret of Anjou, the leading Yorkists chose to flee for their own safety. The Earls of Warwick, Salisbury and March went to Calais.  Richard duke of York travelled to Ireland.

Questions for discussion

1. Why would the Yorkists have travelled to these two locations?
2. What links do they have with Calais or Ireland?
3. What hope would the English parliament and nobles to Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou have of enforcing attainders over the Yorkists in Calais or Ireland? Why?

The locations were quite clearly chosen due to the safety that they offered to the Yorkist hierarchy. Also, for their ability to aid the Yorkist cause through force of arms. Calais was loyal to Warwick. From here he had control over the English Channel and his fleet could harass shipping, make small raids, make land distribute Yorkist propaganda. Richard had been a popular Lieutenant in Ireland, many men there were loyal to him. Both locations offered military might to back up the cause, a very useful supplement to men in England upon whom these lords could rely.

From Calais, the Earls of Warwick, Salisbury and March made an invasion. They promised good governance and reiterated that they simply wanted the Kings council and ministers to be effective. This gained support in London and the South East and they were able to march on Margaret’s army and defeat it at Northampton. In the process, they captured King Henry VI. The Queen headed with her most trusted advisors.

Discussion points

1. What is the importance of the Yorkists of having custody of the King?
2. What promises had been made by 3 Earls to the people of London and the South East? Why might these promises become a problem?
3. What influence will Queen Margaret have over the parliamentary process and the court following Northampton?
4. What had Richard duke of York always claimed to be doing in his actions up to this point?

York returns

Richard 3rd duke of York was still in Ireland when the contingent from Calais landed in the south of England. When he, accompanied by armed men, did land on English shores he took a rather approach to that which he had previously adopted. His march south resembled a progress, not a match. Upon his arrival in London, he entered the Council chamber bearing his sword and placed his hand upon the throne. Richard was in effect claiming the throne as own.

Questions about Yorks return

1. What do the differences between promises made by Warwick, Salisbury and York’s own son, the earl of March tell us about the situation at this moment in time?
2. Why might Richard have changed from a policy of advocating loyal opposition to one in which he is making a claim itself?
3. Are the majority of the barons likely to support Richard’s claim? Why?
4. What is there to stop Richard simply taking the throne by force at this point?
5. What options were available to the nobility as they tried to come to terms with the rapidly changing situation?

Act of Accord

The solution to the problem that Richard’s claim was one of compromise. King Henry VI would remain on the throne.  Under the Act of Accord, the succession would be to Richard as heir, followed by his sons. The Act also named Richard as Lord Protector, granted him the title of Prince of Wales that of Duke of Cornwall. He was king in all but title. The Act may have been designed placate Richard and bring about an end to conflict arising from his grievances but in doing so It simply presented another problem. Henry VI  had a son, Prince Edward. Edward was safe with his mother in the north. Margaret of Anjou was in mood for surrendering his future. What’s more,  she had the support of most the barons.

Questions about the Act of Accord

1. How did the Act attempt to bring about a peaceful resolution to the tensions of the time?
2. Why would many barons and Queen Margaret not accept the terms the Act of Accord? It had after all been granted royal assent by King Henry VI.
3. Is the Act of Accord likely to decrease or increase the likelihood of armed conflict in the short term? Why do you think this?

Margaret’s Anger

Margaret of Anjou was unwilling to allow her son to be disinherited. In the north she began raising an army. Based in York she retained the loyalty of most of the leading nobles of land. York, despite its obvious links with Richard, was actually very close to many Lancastrian lords: remember that the titles are simply titles, it was not a county v county issue, most the West Riding of Yorkshire was Lancastrian in 1460.

Richard did hold lands in the area. He now had a rebellion against the crown, albeit one organised by the Queen and a threat to land held by himself and his allies in Yorkshire to consider.

• What are the options available to Richard in his capacity as Protector at this point?
• Which these would you choose and why?

Richard’s Actions: December 1460

Ultimately Richard has no choice but to confront the challenge posed by Margaret’s army. So in December of 1460 he decides to head north with an army. Under the terms of the Act of Accord it is treasonable to attack Richard. He also makes use of arrays of commission, asserting his royal preogative to raise men for an army in the kings service. These two factors ought to strike fear into any mid ranked baron, coercing some into his service or making hesitant to join Margaret’s forces.

Richard could have waited for a larger force to be assembled. For example could have utilised Warwicks for the campaign, or travelled more slowly in order to make use of more ordnance on his campaign. Longer preparations have cons as well as those though. The longer he waits, the larger Margaret’s force becomes and the greater the damage Yorkist property in the north.

• In Richard’s position would you choose to attack straight away, or wait?   Bear in mind that it is the height of winter, provisions are low and that traditionally truce would observed over the 12 days of Christmas (25th Dec to 6th Jan, not before as modern adverts ).

Sandal Castle and the Battle of Wakefield

Richard chose to head north quite quickly. It soon became evident that people were willing to attack him: part of his force was attacked at Worksop, date unknown, on the way north. He headed for his castle at Sandal, near Wakefield. This was strategically important as it was close to Pontefract Castle, in Lancastrian hands, and also to river crossings the control of which would have a huge bearing on regional power. Sandal was a reasonably small Castle, quite unable to house the army of Richard, his son Edmund and the Early of Salisbury. Not could it sustain them for long: the same is true of Pontefract which though larger was still unable to house and feed thousands of men.

The precise cause of what happened next is open to debate. Richard is known to have led a large force, estimated at 6000 out of the castle. It may have been a very large foraging exercise, possibly an attempt to exterminate a small Lancastrian force, or even the result of a deception. What occurred is summarised on our page about the Battle of Wakefield. For the purpose this exercise, you simply need to know that Richard was killed on the battlefield. His son, Edmund, was captured and executed soon after. The Early of Salisbury was also captured. Salisbury was taken to Pontefract Castle where is thought that Somerset was willing to hold him to ransom. Locals were having none of that though, he was beheaded. As too were the corpses of Richard and Edmund.

A Paper Crown

Following the victory at Wakefield the heads of the leading Yorkists were sent from Pontefract to York. Here they were placed on spikes to be placed on the walls of the city. Richard’s head had a paper crown placed on top of it and a sign saying ‘let York overlook York’ underneath. His head was placed upon Micklethwaite Bar, one of the most and visible entrances to the City of York.

Questions about a Paper Crown

• What is the symbolic importance of a paper crown?
• Why were the heads of York, Salisbury, Rutland and other noble Yorkists who fell at Wakefield displayed on the walls of the City of York?
• How had Richard managed to go from being attained to Lord Protectansand heir to dead and humiliated within 6 months?

Discussion points

• What is likely to happen next?
• What will the remaining Yorkists do when they hear of Richard’s death?
• What will Margaret of Anjou’s main objective be following victory over Richard?
• Is there any hope of a peaceful resolution to the conflict between the two rival courts?

Links

Wars of the Roses
Richard 3rd duke of York
Margaret of Anjou
Battle of Northampton

This lesson follows on from
A Harvest of Heads