Ruling Russia: Government and Politics c1900

The nature of government and governance within Russia is hugely important on studies of 20th century Russian or Soviet history. How was Russia ruled at the beginning of the 20th century? What were the strengths and weaknesses of this system? How did the system compare to other major European nations at the time? How do these structures impact on Russia over the course of the early to the mid-twentieth century?

Russian Society c1900

This well known depicts Russian Society as it was c1900. Often, students are presented with an annotated, anglicised, version of this illustration. Whilst that saves some time, it does little to embed an understanding of Russian society and/or political systems. Alternatively, you can foster that understanding by questioning students based on an unannotated version.

Questions about the image

1. What does the image portray? How do you know that?
2. What/who is shown at each level on the illustration?
3. What does the image suggest about the relationship between each tier?
4. Can students think of a similar structure from their previous historical studies?

The image illustrates the top-down nature of Russian society at the time.

• At the top the Tsar and aristocracy. This is the Russian elite.
• Next is the nobility which accounted for 1.1% of the population: and were appointed directly by the Tsar or attained the rank through promotion to the top 4 tiers of the Russian Civil Service. The text to the side translates roughly we govern you.
• The Russian Orthodox Church is the third tier from the top. In 1900 the church headed by the Tsar and it was technically speaking a governmental department. The text translates to we pray for you. The church was important as a means of communication and played a role in maintaining the peasantries adoration of the Tsar.
• The Russian military is the next tier down, specifically the officer class. The text translates as we shoot you. This reflects the role that the army had in law and order, as well as their military functions.
• Underneath the military is the emerging Bourgeoise. The middle classes of Russian society. Newly in many cases. We eat for is the translation of the text alongside. This reflects the additional purchasing power that they had and the perception that they partied lots.
• At the foot of the tower are the urban and agricultural workers: the Serfs. They account for 85%  of the population.

Emperor and Autocrat of all Russia

Russia in 1900 was an autocratic state. Unlike the Western European nations there been virtually no transfer of power away from the royal family. Law was made by the Tsar,  or in his name. Russia’s system upon the Tsar and his chosen ministers and advisors.

Russia’s Political and Legal Framework

Statesman’s Handbook for Russia

1896 – By the Chancery of the Committee of Ministers, St. Petersburg

[This version was written primarily for the English diplomatic corps, therefore the spelling conventions are those of Victorian England and are as found in the original text. -ed. These are a few interesting excerpts from Volume 1.]

RIGHTS OF THE SOVEREIGN POWER

The rights of state power in their entire extent belong to the Sovereign Emperor. but the Emperor does not directly exercise all of his rights. Catherine II explained in her Instructions or Nakaz, that “the fundamental laws of the State necessarily assume middle channels, ie: institutions, through which the Sovereign power is exercised.” Hence the division of the government into supreme and subordinate. In the supreme government the power of the Sovereign operates in a direct manner. In subordinate government a degree of power is entrusted by him to persons and institutions, acting in his name, by his orders, and within the limits, laid down for them by law. The general principle, defining the sphere of direct application of the Sovereign power, is clearly deducible from what has been stated above as to the law and its significance in the organization of the State. The direct application of the Sovereign power is indispensable either when the general necessity of altering a law presents itself, whereas all, that is sufficiently defined by the law, is subject to the jurisdiction of subordinate powers.Consequently the Imperial power acts directly in the first place in legislation; no state institution can independently establish a new law, and no law can be carried out without the confirmation of the Sovereign power. But even in the administration it sometimes becomes necessary to take measures, which owing to their importance, can be put into force only by the Sovereign power. Such are, firstly: the most important external relations, as the declaration of war, conclusion of peace, of conventions and treaties with foreign countries; secondly – general internal matters in extraordinary cases, as for instance – in matters, concerning the public peace and safety, public alimentation, the building of railways, etc.

As representative of Sovereign power in the State, the Monarch is the source of all distinctions and privileges: preferment to the dignity of nobility, the granting of hereditary titles and other callings, ranks, orders and forms of distinction all depend on him.

As head of the State, the Emperor disposes independently of all the personal and material forces of the Empire. He commands the army and navy, appoints to all offices in the civil service, the army and the navy and confirms the appointment of officials to certain posts in the provincial, municipal and class administrations. The Sovereign power alone can impose general taxes and contributions, can order the employment of state funds, by confirming the estimates of state revenues and expenditure, etc.

As head of the government, the Emperor has supreme supervision over the course of the whole government of the State; therefore the ministers and governors present annual reports to His Majesty, showing the course of affairs in the departments entrusted to them.

Finally, as a christian Sovereign, the Emperor acts with supremacy in Church affairs, in as far as they refer to civil relations, independently of dogma and internal hierarchal administration. His is supreme defender and protector of the dogma of the established Orthodox Greek-Catholic Church.

Questions about the Russian system of Government

1. Who holds power within this structure?
2. How much power do they have?
3. Who are they accountable to?
4. What are direct and subordinate rule?
5.  What are the potential flaws of this system of government?

Imperial Council

The Tsar had a council of ten ministers who advised him on key issues. These ministers had specific roles, such as Finance, Foreign Affairs or the Military. They were appointed by and accountable to the Tsar, who could dismiss them as he saw fit. Members of the Imperial Council usually came from Aristocratic families. Many had served in Russia’s armed forces. The Ministers had responsibility for implementing policy within their area and had many servants at their disposal to aid them.

Regional Government

As saw in Russia: The Big Picture, the Empire was huge. In order to have subordinate rule across the entire Empire, the area was split into 50 provinces. Each of the provinces had a Governor who was appointed by the Tsar. This Governor ruled the province in the Tsar’s name and was responsible for appointments and all functions of government within the province.

Zemstvos

A Zemstvo was a district council. They were established Tsar Alexander II and had an initial function of providing education within each district. Zemstvos were elected bodies, at the time the only form of democracy within the Russian Empire. Only the wealthy were able to vote for Zemstvo members.

Questions about the Russian Political System

1. What rights do the emerging Bourgeoise (middle class) have in this structure?
2. What influence do industrialists, inventors and merchants have in this structure?
3. What rights do serfs appear to have in this structure? (You wish to explain the Emancipation of the Serfs)
4. Who will take the credit for everything that works well whilst this is in place? How does this help to reinforce this system of government?
5. Who will be blamed for anything that does not work well under this structure?
6. How does this structure compare to systems of Government in other major European nations?
7. In what ways might the differences between the Russian system and those in place in countries such as Great Britain, France or Germany at the same time present a political challenge to Russia’s Government?

Scholarship on Russian Governmental Systems c1900

Between the Tsar and the People: Educated Society and the quest for Public Identity. Edited by Edith W. Clowes, Samuel D. Kassow, James Lawrence West, James L. West (1991)

The Tsar’s Viceroys: Russian Provincial Governors in the Last Years of the… Richard G. Robbins (2019)

Links

Russian and Soviet History – our notes on the era. Aimed at GCSE but a good introduction.